Vietnam's journey from a war-torn nation to a respected international partner represents one of the most remarkable transformations in modern diplomatic history. After decades of conflicts with major powers including the United States, China, France, and Japan, Vietnam has successfully rebuilt trust and established productive partnerships with its former adversaries. This transformation reflects a unique approach that combines traditional Vietnamese values with pragmatic modern diplomacy. The US-Vietnam relationship exemplifies this successful trust-building process. From bitter enemies in the 1970s to comprehensive partners today, this bilateral relationship demonstrates how determined leadership, strategic patience, and mutual understanding can transform historical antagonism into constructive cooperation. Vietnam's model of trust reconstruction offers valuable lessons for international relations, particularly for developing nations emerging from conflict.
Vietnamese Philosophy and Diplomatic Strategy
Vietnam’s foundation for trust-building stems from deeply rooted cultural values and modern diplomatic adaptations. The Vietnamese agricultural civilization, spanning over 4,000 years, has cultivated a peace-loving mentality, evident in traditional proverbs like "Lấ y ấn báo oán" (returning kindness for enmity).
These values have been reflected in key moments throughout history, such as King Tran Nhan Tong’s reconciliation policy with the Yuan Dynasty and the Tay Son Dynasty’s diplomatic efforts with Qing China1 (Thuan et al, 2018; Tran, 2009). The emphasis on harmony, reconciliation, and practical solutions forms a crucial foundation for both past and present strategies.This commitment was enshrined in Vietnam's foreign policy frameworks, including the Central Resolution 13 (May, 1988) emphasizing "thêm ban bó't thù" (make more friends, fewer enemies), which remains a guiding principle for international engagement.
Vietnam’s philosophy has evolved into what is often called "bamboo diplomacy," a concept that emphasizes resilience and adaptability while staying rooted in fundamental national interests. Like bamboo, which bends with the wind but does not break, Vietnam's diplomatic approach balances cooperation with diverse partners while safeguarding sovereignty and stability.
"Like bamboo, which bends with the wind but does not break, Vietnam's diplomatic approach balances cooperation with diverse partners"
By 2025, Vietnam now maintains diplomatic relations with 194 countries and has established comprehensive strategic partnerships with 12 nations including China, France, Japan, and the United States - all former adversaries. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Vietnam, 2025).
In addition, Vietnam's proactive international integration strategy, has led to its participation in 17 free trade agreements (Center for WTO and International Trade, 2024) and memberships in over 63 international organizations (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Vietnam, 2025). This diplomatic agility allowed Vietnam to maintain independence while navigating global complexities, including managing public health strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic (Tinh et al, 2022).
While economic cooperation has been instrumental in Vietnam’s reconciliation efforts, it has not functioned in isolation. Trade agreements and investment partnerships have strengthened interdependence, yet lasting trust requires more than economic ties. Vietnam has complemented its economic strategy with security cooperation— such as strategic dialogues with major powers—and cultural diplomacy, including educational exchanges and historical reconciliation initiatives. This multidimensional approach has allowed Vietnam to foster stability, strengthen international partnerships, and rebuild trust with former adversaries.2
"Trade agreements and investment partnerships have strengthened interdependence, yet lasting trust requires more than economic ties."
In addition, Vietnam's proactive international integration strategy has led toits participation in 17 free trade agreements3 and memberships in over 63 international organizations4. This diplomatic agility allowedVietnam to maintain independence while navigating global complexities,including managing public health strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic5.
Credit :Hien Vu
A vietnamese visitor stands silently in front of a preserved MiG-21 fighter aircraft at the B-52 Victory Museum in Hanoi
Case Study: Vietnam-US Trust Building Process
The normalization of Vietnam-US relations exemplifies Vietnam’s strategic combination of cultural values and pragmatic diplomacy. The foundation for trust was laid through humanitarian cooperation, particularly in the search for and repatriation of U.S. servicemen classified as Missing in Action (MIA) or Prisoners of War (POW). Between 1988 and 1995, the two nations conducted 143 joint field activities to search for and repatriate the remains of missing U.S. servicemen, reflecting Vietnam’s willingness to address sensitive historical issues early in the process6 (Furmanovsky, 2007) (Bui T. N., 2006).
Key milestones in the trust-building journey included the lifting of the US trade embargo in 1994 and full normalization of diplomatic relations in 1995. Economic cooperation became a cornerstone, with bilateral trade growing from $451 million in 1995 to over $132 billion in 20247 (Nguyen, 2024). Agreements such as the 2001 Bilateral Trade Agreement and Vietnam’s 2007 accession to the WTO deepened this partnership. Joint initiatives to resolve war legacies, such as dioxin cleanup and unexploded ordnance clearance (UXO), demonstrated both nations' commitment to healing historical wounds and fostering future cooperation. The US has contributed over $381 million to clean up contamination sites like the Da Nang and Bien Hoa airports, while collaborative UXO programs have cleared hundreds of thousands of square meters of land8 (Quang et al, 2013).
High-level diplomatic visits, such as President Obama’s 2016 trip to Vietnam and the 2023 meeting between President Biden and Vietnamese leaders, have further solidified the relationship. These visits symbolize a culmination of decades of trust-building efforts, with both countries affirming their commitment to security cooperation and economic growth.
Broader Applications of Vietnam’s Trust-Building Model
Vietnam’s successful trust-building with the US has parallels in its relationships with other former adversaries. In Japan’s case, initial humanitarian cooperation through the Japan Red Cross laid the groundwork for diplomatic normalization in 1973. Economic partnership followed, with Japan becoming Vietnam’s largest ODA donor, contributing $23 billion since 19929 (Hoang, 2021). Key projects in infrastructure, technology, and education have reinforced this relationship, along with cultural exchanges such as the Japan-Vietnam Festival.
Similarly, Vietnam’s relationship with France has evolved from colonial conflict to strategic partnership. The 2013 Strategic Partnership agreement built upon decades of collaboration in areas such as education, where bilingual schools and joint universities have flourished. French investment in Vietnam reached $3.5 billion across 605 projects by 2022, underscoring the importance of economic cooperation. Vietnam’s maintenance of French architectural and cultural heritage also demonstrates its respect for shared history10.
Analysis of Success Factors
Vietnam's successful trust-building efforts with former adversaries, such as the United States, Japan, and France, demonstrate the transferability and effectiveness of its unique approach to international relations. The foundation of Vietnam's trust-building model lies in its ability to seamlessly integrate cultural understanding, economic collaboration, and consistent engagement, fostering sustainable partnerships. This approach is characterized by three key success factors: strategic patience, a pragmatic approach, and cultural sensitivity.
Vietnam's long-term vision, exemplified by Party Resolution 13 (1988), emphasizes the importance of strategic patience in gradually engaging with former adversaries, even amid ongoing tensions. This patient approach has allowed Vietnam to make steady progress through humanitarian cooperation and ongoing dialogue, showcasing its leaders' ability to persevere in negotiations and trust-building efforts despite challenges. Concurrently, Vietnam has employed a pragmatic approach, prioritizing mutual benefits by addressing sensitive issues, such as war legacies and economic cooperation, in parallel but separate tracks. This strategy has facilitated progress in areas of shared interest without being impeded by historical disputes, with trade agreements and cultural initiatives providing a practical basis for stronger political ties.
Furthermore, Vietnam and its partners have consistently demonstrated cultural sensitivity, respecting each other's historical narratives and political principles. This mutual understanding has reinforced cooperation, as evidenced by high-level joint statements acknowledging the distinct values and shared goals of each nation. By nurturing public support for diplomatic initiatives on both sides, cultural sensitivity has played a crucial role in the success of Vietnam's trust-building endeavors.
Conclusion
As the world navigates increasingly complex challenges, Vietnam's trust-building journey offers a valuable roadmap for sustainable peacebuilding, underscoring the significance of blending cultural wisdom with diplomatic pragmatism. The remarkable transformation of Vietnam-US relations, in particular, exemplifies the enduring strength of trust, diplomacy, and strategic cooperation in international relations, providing a model for other nations seeking to emerge from conflict and build lasting partnerships in an increasingly interconnected world.
References:
1
Thuan, P. D. (2018). Diplomatic relations of Dai Viet under the dynasty of Le Thanh Tong (1460–1497). Journal of Science and Technology-University of Danang, 59-62, Tran, N. A. (2009). Tay Son Diplomacy – Unique Ideas and Historical Lessons.
2
Infographics News (2025). 12 countries establishing comprehensive strategic partnership with Vietnam. https://en.baochinhphu.vn/infographics-12-countries-with-comprehensive-s...
3
Center for WTO and International Trade. (2024). Vietnam’s FTAs as of October 2024. TTWTO VCCI - Vietnam’s FTAs as of October 2024. https://wtocenter.vn/tin-tuc/13814-vietnams-ftas-summary-as-of-april-2019
4
Infographics News (2025). 12 countries establishing comprehensive strategic partnership with Vietnam. https:// en.baochinhphu.vn/infographics-12-countries-with-comprehensive-strategic-partnerships-with-viet-nam-111250312101901142. htm
5
Tinh, L. D., & Thanh, N. T. (2022). Promoting health diplomacy in the fight against COVID-19: the case of Vietnam. Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, 65, e002.
6
Furmanovsky, M. (2007) Reconciliation, Restitution and Healing: The Role of Vietnam Veterans in Facilitating a New Era in US-Vietnam Relations; Bui, T. N. (2006). Vietnam-US relations from normalization to development cooperation. VNU Journal of Science: Social Sciences and Humanities, 22(1).
7
Nguyen, M. T., & Tran, P. D. (2024). Vietnam-the US relationship and effects on economic cooperation. Valley International Journal Digital Library, 6630-6640.
8
Quang, N. H., & Trang, N. T. Q. (2013) Reviewing 10 Years of the Vietnam-US Comprehensive Partnership: Vietnam’s Perspective.
9
Hoang, T. N. V. (2021). The Strategic Role of ODA Diplomacy in Vietnam-Japan Relations in the 2013-2020 Period.
10
Le, T. B., & Nguyen, M. T. (2023). French cultural diplomacy and lessons learned for Vietnam.
Bui, T. N. (2006). Vietnam-US relations from normalization to development cooperation. VNU Journal of Science: Social Sciences and Humanities, 22(1).
Center for WTO and International Trade. (2024). Vietnam’s ftas as of octorber 2024. TTWTO VCCI - Vietnam’s FTAs as of Octorber 2024. https://wtocenter.vn/tin-tuc/13814-vietnams-ftas-summary-as-of-april-2019
Furmanovsky, M. (2007) Reconciliation, Restitution and Healing: The Role of Vietnam Veterans in Facilitating a New Era in US-Vietnam Relations.
Hoang, T. N. V. (2021). THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF ODA DIPLOMACY IN VIETNAM–JAPAN RELATIONS IN THE 2013-2020 PERIOD.
Infographics News (2025). 12 countries establishing comprehensive strategic partnership with Vietnam.
https://en.baochinhphu.vn/infographics-12-countries-with-comprehensive-s...
Le, T. B., & Nguyen, M. T. (2023). French cultural diplomacy and lessons learned for Vietnam.
Minh, N. T. H., & Nguyễn Anh, C. (2024). Specific cultural values affect basic political activities in Vietnam. Cogent Social Sciences, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2404622
Nguyen, M. T., & Tran, P. D. (2024). Vietnam-the US relationship and effects on economic cooperation. Valley International Journal Digital Library, 6630-6640.
Quang, N. H., & Trang, N. T. Q. (2013) REVIEWING 10 YEARS OF THE VIETNAM-US COMPREHENSIVE PARTNERSHIP: VIETNAM'S PERSPECTIVE.
Tinh, L. D., & Thanh, N. T. (2022). Promoting health diplomacy in the fight against COVID-19: the case of Vietnam. Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, 65, e002.
Thuan, P. D. (2018). Diplomatic relations of Dai Viet under the dynasty of Le Thanh Tong (1460–1497). Journal of Science and Technology-University of Danang, 59-62.
Thuy, N. T. G. (2020). CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN VIETNAM'S FOREIGN POLICY. Science Journal, 17(4), 646.
Tran, N. A. (2009). Tay Son Diplomacy – Unique Ideas and Historical Lessons.